medsovetМедицинский СоветMeditsinskiy sovet = Medical Council2079-701X2658-5790REMEDIUM GROUP Ltd.10.21518/2079-701X-2021-12-286-292medsovet-6360Research ArticleЭНДОКРИНОЛОГИЯENDOCRINOLOGYРоль самоконтроля гликемии в управлении сахарным диабетом: по материалам рекомендаций Американской диабетической ассоциации (2021)The role of glycemic self-control in diabetes management: based on the American Diabetes Association guidelines (2021)https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2144-8595РуноваГ. Е.RunovaG. E.

к.м.н., врач-эндокринолог, доцент кафедры эндокринологии № 1 Института клинической медицины имени Н.В. Склифосовского;

119121, Москва, ул. Погодинская, д. 1, стр. 1

Cand. Sci. (Med.), Endocrinologist, Associate Professor, Department of Endocrinology No. 1, Sklifosovsky Institute of Clinical Medicine, 

1, Bldg. 1, Pogodinskaya St., Moscow, 119121

guzelvolkova@yandex.ruПервый Московский государственный медицинский университет имени И.М. Сеченова (Сеченовский Университет)РоссияSechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University)Russian Federation202118092021012286292Copyright © Рунова Г.Е., 20212021Рунова Г.Е.Runova G.E.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.med-sovet.pro/jour/article/view/6360

Контроль глюкозы крови является неотъемлемой частью терапии сахарного диабета (СД). Неудивительно, что технологии в области СД развиваются в направлении не только создания новых способов введения инсулина, но и совершенствования измерения гликемии. За  последние 10  лет на  рынке появилось значительное количество новых систем мониторирования глюкозы. Тем не менее на настоящий момент только 30% пациентов с СД 1-го типа и единицы больных с СД 2-го типа используют непрерывный или флеш-мониторинг. Это обусловлено не только стоимостью и техническими сложностями непрерывного мониторинга, но  еще и  его клинической целесообразностью. Существуют неоспоримые доказательства необходимости частого самоконтроля / непрерывного мониторинга при проведении интенсифицированной инсулинотерапии, прежде всего у людей с СД 1-го типа. В отношении пациентов с СД 2-го типа, получающих базальный инсулин и (или) другую антигипергликемическую терапию, данные противоречивы и неоднозначны. Тем не менее большинство рекомендаций сводится к необходимости самоконтроля глюкозы крови пациентам с СД 2-го типа. В опубликованных в 2021 г. рекомендациях Американской диабетической ассоциации в разделе, посвященном технологиям в управлении СД, подробно описаны вопросы роли самоконтроля гликемии в управлении СД, в т. ч. необходимости постоянного обучения пациентов принципам и правилам самоконтроля, интерпретации и применения на практике результатов самоконтроля, различных стандартов глюкометров, факторов, влияющих на точность результатов. 

Glycemic control represents an integral part of diabetes mellitus (DM) therapy. It is not surprising that diabetes technology is evolving to not only create new routes of insulin administration, but also to improve the measurement of glycemia. A significant number of new glucose monitoring systems have been launched to the market over the past 10 years. Nevertheless, only 30% of patients with type 1 diabetes and very few patients with type 2 diabetes use continuous or flash glucose monitoring. The reason for this is not only the cost and technical difficulties of continuous glucose monitoring, but also its clinical appropriateness. There is indisputable evidence that patients who receive intensified insulin therapy, especially those with type 1 diabetes, need frequent self-monitoring / continuous glucose monitoring. As for patients with type 2 diabetes receiving basal insulin and / or other antihyperglycemic therapy, the data received seem to be contradictory and uncertain. However, most of the recommendations simmer down to the need for self-monitoring of blood glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes. The diabetes technology section of the American Diabetes Association guidelines 2021 goes into details about the role of self-monitoring of blood glucose in diabetes management, including the need for continuous patient education on the principles and rules of self-monitoring, interpretation and practical use of the results of self-monitoring, various standards of glucometers, factors affecting the accuracy of the results. 

контроль глюкозы кровисахарный диабет 1-го типасахарный диабет 2-го типакомпенсация сахарного диабетагликированный гемоглобинцелевые значенияglycemic controltype 1 diabetestype 2 diabetesdiabetes compensationglycated hemoglobintarget valuesReferencesAmerican Diabetes Association. 7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(Suppl 1):S85– S99. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-s007.American Diabetes Association. 7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(Suppl 1):S85– S99. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-s007.Nathan D.M., Genuth S., Lachin J., Cleary P., Crofford O., Davis M. et al. The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(14):977–986. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199309303291401.Nathan D.M., Genuth S., Lachin J., Cleary P., Crofford O., Davis M. et al. The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(14):977–986. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199309303291401.King F., Ahn D., Hsiao V., Porco T., Klonoff D.C. A Review of Blood Glucose Monitor Accuracy. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2018;20(12):843–856. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2018.0232.King F., Ahn D., Hsiao V., Porco T., Klonoff D.C. A Review of Blood Glucose Monitor Accuracy. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2018;20(12):843–856. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2018.0232.Brazg R.L., Klaff L.J., Parkin C.G. Performance Variability of Seven Commonly Used Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Systems: Clinical Considerations for Patients and Providers. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2013;7(1):144–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229681300700117.Brazg R.L., Klaff L.J., Parkin C.G. Performance Variability of Seven Commonly Used Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Systems: Clinical Considerations for Patients and Providers. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2013;7(1):144–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229681300700117.Klonoff D.C., Parkes J.L., Kovatchev B.P., Kerr D., Bevier W.C., Brazg R.L. et al. Investigation of the Accuracy of 18 Marketed Blood Glucose Monitors. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(8):1681–1688. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-1960.Klonoff D.C., Parkes J.L., Kovatchev B.P., Kerr D., Bevier W.C., Brazg R.L. et al. Investigation of the Accuracy of 18 Marketed Blood Glucose Monitors. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(8):1681–1688. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-1960.Grady M., Lamps G., Shemain A., Cameron H., Murray L. Clinical Evaluation of a New, Lower Pain, One Touch Lancing Device for People With Diabetes: Virtually Pain-Free Testing and Improved Comfort Compared to Current Lancing Systems. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2021;15(1):53–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296819856665.Grady M., Lamps G., Shemain A., Cameron H., Murray L. Clinical Evaluation of a New, Lower Pain, One Touch Lancing Device for People With Diabetes: Virtually Pain-Free Testing and Improved Comfort Compared to Current Lancing Systems. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2021;15(1):53–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296819856665.Harrison B., Brown D. Accuracy of a Blood Glucose Monitoring System that Recognizes Insufficient Sample Blood Volume and Allows Application of More Blood to the Same Test Strip. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2020;17(1):75–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2020.1704253.Harrison B., Brown D. Accuracy of a Blood Glucose Monitoring System that Recognizes Insufficient Sample Blood Volume and Allows Application of More Blood to the Same Test Strip. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2020;17(1):75–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2020.1704253.Miller K.M., Beck R.W., Bergenstal R.M., Goland R.S., Haller M.J., McGill J.B. et al. Evidence of a Strong Association between Frequency of SelfMonitoring of Blood Glucose and Hemoglobin A1c Levels in T1D Exchange Clinic Registry Participants. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(7):2009– 2014. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-1770.Miller K.M., Beck R.W., Bergenstal R.M., Goland R.S., Haller M.J., McGill J.B. et al. Evidence of a Strong Association between Frequency of SelfMonitoring of Blood Glucose and Hemoglobin A1c Levels in T1D Exchange Clinic Registry Participants. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(7):2009– 2014. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-1770.Grant R.W., Huang E.S., Wexler D.J., Laiteerapong N., Warton M.E., Moffet H.H., Karter A.J. Patients Who Self-Monitor Blood Glucose and Their Unused Testing Results. Am J Manag Care. 2015;21(2):e119–e129. Available at: https://www.ajmc.com/view/patients-who-self-monitorblood-glucose-and-their-unused-testing-results-.Grant R.W., Huang E.S., Wexler D.J., Laiteerapong N., Warton M.E., Moffet H.H., Karter A.J. Patients Who Self-Monitor Blood Glucose and Their Unused Testing Results. Am J Manag Care. 2015;21(2):e119–e129. Available at: https://www.ajmc.com/view/patients-who-self-monitorblood-glucose-and-their-unused-testing-results-.Katz L.B., Stewart L., Guthrie B., Cameron H. Patient Satisfaction with a New, High Accuracy Blood Glucose Meter That Provides Personalized Guidance, Insight, and Encouragement. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2020;14(2):318–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296819867396.Katz L.B., Stewart L., Guthrie B., Cameron H. Patient Satisfaction with a New, High Accuracy Blood Glucose Meter That Provides Personalized Guidance, Insight, and Encouragement. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2020;14(2):318–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296819867396.Shaw R.J., Yang Q., Barnes A., Hatch D., Crowley M.J., Vorderstrasse A. et al. Self-Monitoring Diabetes with Multiple Mobile Health Devices. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2020;27(5):667–676. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocaa007.Shaw R.J., Yang Q., Barnes A., Hatch D., Crowley M.J., Vorderstrasse A. et al. Self-Monitoring Diabetes with Multiple Mobile Health Devices. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2020;27(5):667–676. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocaa007.Gellad W.F., Zhao X., Thorpe C.T., Mor M.K., Good C.B., Fine M.J. Dual Use of Department of Veterans Affairs and Medicare Benefits and Use of Test Strips in Veterans with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(1):26–34. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.5405.Gellad W.F., Zhao X., Thorpe C.T., Mor M.K., Good C.B., Fine M.J. Dual Use of Department of Veterans Affairs and Medicare Benefits and Use of Test Strips in Veterans with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(1):26–34. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.5405.Ziegler R., Heidtmann B., Hilgard D., Hofer S., Rosenbauer J., Holl R. Frequency of SMBG Correlates with HbA1c and Acute Complications in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2011;12(1):11–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5448.2010.00650.x.Ziegler R., Heidtmann B., Hilgard D., Hofer S., Rosenbauer J., Holl R. Frequency of SMBG Correlates with HbA1c and Acute Complications in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2011;12(1):11–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5448.2010.00650.x.Rosenstock J., Davies M., Home P.D., Larsen J., Koenen C., Schernthaner G. A Randomised, 52-Week, Treat-to-Target Trial Comparing Insulin Detemir with Insulin Glargine when Administered as Add-On to Glucose-Lowering Drugs in Insulin-Naive People with Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetologia. 2008;51(3):408–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-007-0911-x.Rosenstock J., Davies M., Home P.D., Larsen J., Koenen C., Schernthaner G. A Randomised, 52-Week, Treat-to-Target Trial Comparing Insulin Detemir with Insulin Glargine when Administered as Add-On to Glucose-Lowering Drugs in Insulin-Naive People with Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetologia. 2008;51(3):408–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-007-0911-x.Garber A.J. Treat-to-Target Trials: Uses, Interpretation and Review of Concepts. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014;16(3):193–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.12129.Garber A.J. Treat-to-Target Trials: Uses, Interpretation and Review of Concepts. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014;16(3):193–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.12129.Farmer A., Wade A., Goyder E., Yudkin P., French D., Craven A. et al. Impact of Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose in the Management of Patients with Non-Insulin Treated Diabetes: Open Parallel Group Randomised Trial. BMJ. 2007;335(7611):132. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39247.447431.BE.Farmer A., Wade A., Goyder E., Yudkin P., French D., Craven A. et al. Impact of Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose in the Management of Patients with Non-Insulin Treated Diabetes: Open Parallel Group Randomised Trial. BMJ. 2007;335(7611):132. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39247.447431.BE.O’Kane M.J., Bunting B., Copeland M., Coates V.E. Efficacy of Self Monitoring Of Blood Glucose in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes (ESMON Study): Randomised Controlled Trial. BMJ. 2008;336(7654):1174–1177. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39534.571644.BE.O’Kane M.J., Bunting B., Copeland M., Coates V.E. Efficacy of Self Monitoring Of Blood Glucose in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes (ESMON Study): Randomised Controlled Trial. BMJ. 2008;336(7654):1174–1177. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39534.571644.BE.Simon J., Gray A., Clarke P., Wade A., Neil A., Farmer A. Cost Effectiveness of Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Patients with Non-Insulin Treated Type 2 Diabetes: Economic Evaluation of Data from the DiGEM Trial. BMJ. 2008;336(7654):1177–1180. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39526.674873.BE.Simon J., Gray A., Clarke P., Wade A., Neil A., Farmer A. Cost Effectiveness of Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Patients with Non-Insulin Treated Type 2 Diabetes: Economic Evaluation of Data from the DiGEM Trial. BMJ. 2008;336(7654):1177–1180. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39526.674873.BE.Young L.A., Buse J.B., Weaver M.A., Vu M.B., Mitchell C.M., Blakeney T. et al. Glucose Self-Monitoring in Non-Insulin-Treated Patients With Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care Settings: A Randomized Trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(7):920–929. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.1233.Young L.A., Buse J.B., Weaver M.A., Vu M.B., Mitchell C.M., Blakeney T. et al. Glucose Self-Monitoring in Non-Insulin-Treated Patients With Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care Settings: A Randomized Trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(7):920–929. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.1233.Polonsky W.H., Fisher L., Schikman C.H., Hinnen D.A., Parkin C.G., Jelsovsky Z. et al. Structured Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Significantly Reduces A1C Levels in Poorly Controlled, Noninsulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes: Results from the Structured Testing Program Study. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(2):262–267. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1732.Polonsky W.H., Fisher L., Schikman C.H., Hinnen D.A., Parkin C.G., Jelsovsky Z. et al. Structured Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Significantly Reduces A1C Levels in Poorly Controlled, Noninsulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes: Results from the Structured Testing Program Study. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(2):262–267. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1732.Malanda U.L., Welschen L.M., Riphagen I.I., Dekker J.M., Nijpels G., Bot S.D. Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Who Are not Using Insulin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;1:CD005060. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005060.pub3.Malanda U.L., Welschen L.M., Riphagen I.I., Dekker J.M., Nijpels G., Bot S.D. Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Who Are not Using Insulin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;1:CD005060. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005060.pub3.Willett L.R. ACP Journal Club. Meta-Analysis: Self-Monitoring in NonInsulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes Improved HbA1c by 0.25%. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156(12):JC6–JC12. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-156-12- 201206190-02012.Willett L.R. ACP Journal Club. Meta-Analysis: Self-Monitoring in NonInsulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes Improved HbA1c by 0.25%. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156(12):JC6–JC12. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-156-12- 201206190-02012.Mannucci E., Antenore A., Giorgino F., Scavini M. Effects of Structured versus Unstructured Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose on Glucose Control in Patients with Non-Insulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2018;12(1):183– 189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296817719290.Mannucci E., Antenore A., Giorgino F., Scavini M. Effects of Structured versus Unstructured Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose on Glucose Control in Patients with Non-Insulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2018;12(1):183– 189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296817719290.Sai S., Urata M., Ogawa I. Evaluation of Linearity and Interference Effect on SMBG and POCT Devices, Showing Drastic High Values, Low Values, or Error Messages. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2019;13(4):734–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296818821664.Sai S., Urata M., Ogawa I. Evaluation of Linearity and Interference Effect on SMBG and POCT Devices, Showing Drastic High Values, Low Values, or Error Messages. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2019;13(4):734–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296818821664.Ginsberg B.H. Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2009;3(4):903–913. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229680900300438.Ginsberg B.H. Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2009;3(4):903–913. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229680900300438.Jones L.V., Ray A., Moy F.M., Buckley B.S. Techniques of Monitoring Blood Glucose during Pregnancy for Women with Pre-Existing Diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;5(5):CD009613. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub4.Jones L.V., Ray A., Moy F.M., Buckley B.S. Techniques of Monitoring Blood Glucose during Pregnancy for Women with Pre-Existing Diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;5(5):CD009613. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub4.Moy F.M., Ray A., Buckley B.S., West H.M. Techniques of Monitoring Blood Glucose during Pregnancy for Women with Pre-Existing Diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;6(6):CD009613. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub3.Moy F.M., Ray A., Buckley B.S., West H.M. Techniques of Monitoring Blood Glucose during Pregnancy for Women with Pre-Existing Diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;6(6):CD009613. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub3.Beck R.W., Riddlesworth T., Ruedy K., Ahmann A., Bergenstal R., Haller S. et al. Effect of Continuous Glucose Monitoring on Glycemic Control in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes Using Insulin Injections: The DIAMOND Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017;317(4):371–378. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.19975.Beck R.W., Riddlesworth T., Ruedy K., Ahmann A., Bergenstal R., Haller S. et al. Effect of Continuous Glucose Monitoring on Glycemic Control in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes Using Insulin Injections: The DIAMOND Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017;317(4):371–378. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.19975.Riddlesworth T., Price D., Cohen N., Beck R.W. Hypoglycemic Event Frequency and the Effect of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes Using Multiple Daily Insulin Injections. Diabetes Ther. 2017;8(4):947–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13300-017-0281-4.Riddlesworth T., Price D., Cohen N., Beck R.W. Hypoglycemic Event Frequency and the Effect of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes Using Multiple Daily Insulin Injections. Diabetes Ther. 2017;8(4):947–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13300-017-0281-4.Yoo H.J., An H.G., Park S.Y., Ryu O.H., Kim H.Y., Seo J.A. et al. Use of a Real Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring System as a Motivational Device for Poorly Controlled Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;82(1):73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2008.06.015.Yoo H.J., An H.G., Park S.Y., Ryu O.H., Kim H.Y., Seo J.A. et al. Use of a Real Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring System as a Motivational Device for Poorly Controlled Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;82(1):73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2008.06.015.Ehrhardt N.M., Chellappa M., Walker M.S., Fonda S.J., Vigersky R.A. The Effect of Real-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring on Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2011;5(3):668–675. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229681100500320.Ehrhardt N.M., Chellappa M., Walker M.S., Fonda S.J., Vigersky R.A. The Effect of Real-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring on Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2011;5(3):668–675. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229681100500320.Beck R.W., Riddlesworth T.D., Ruedy K., Ahmann A., Haller S., Kruger D. et al. Continuous Glucose Monitoring versus Usual Care in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Receiving Multiple Daily Insulin Injections: A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167(6):365–374. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-2855.Beck R.W., Riddlesworth T.D., Ruedy K., Ahmann A., Haller S., Kruger D. et al. Continuous Glucose Monitoring versus Usual Care in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Receiving Multiple Daily Insulin Injections: A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167(6):365–374. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-2855.Huhn E.A., Linder T., Eppel D., Weißhaupt K., Klapp C., Schellong K. et al. Effectiveness of Real-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring to Improve Glycaemic Control and Pregnancy Outcome in Patients with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Study Protocol for a Randomised Controlled Trial. BMJ Open. 2020;10(11):e040498. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040498.Huhn E.A., Linder T., Eppel D., Weißhaupt K., Klapp C., Schellong K. et al. Effectiveness of Real-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring to Improve Glycaemic Control and Pregnancy Outcome in Patients with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Study Protocol for a Randomised Controlled Trial. BMJ Open. 2020;10(11):e040498. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040498.Manderson J.G., Patterson C.C., Hadden D.R., Traub A.I., Ennis C., McCance D.R. Preprandial versus Postprandial Blood Glucose Monitoring in Type 1 Diabetic Pregnancy: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189(2):507–512. https://doi.org/10.1067/s0002-9378(03)00497-6.Manderson J.G., Patterson C.C., Hadden D.R., Traub A.I., Ennis C., McCance D.R. Preprandial versus Postprandial Blood Glucose Monitoring in Type 1 Diabetic Pregnancy: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189(2):507–512. https://doi.org/10.1067/s0002-9378(03)00497-6.De Veciana M., Major C.A., Morgan M.A., Asrat T., Toohey J.S., Lien J.M., Evans A.T. Postprandial versus Preprandial Blood Glucose Monitoring in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Requiring Insulin Therapy. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(19):1237–1241. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199511093331901.De Veciana M., Major C.A., Morgan M.A., Asrat T., Toohey J.S., Lien J.M., Evans A.T. Postprandial versus Preprandial Blood Glucose Monitoring in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Requiring Insulin Therapy. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(19):1237–1241. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199511093331901.Jovanovic-Peterson L., Peterson C.M., Reed G.F., Metzger B.E., Mills J.L., Knopp R.H., Aarons J.H. Maternal Postprandial Glucose Levels and Infant Birth Weight: the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development – Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;164(1 Pt 1):103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(91)90637-7.Jovanovic-Peterson L., Peterson C.M., Reed G.F., Metzger B.E., Mills J.L., Knopp R.H., Aarons J.H. Maternal Postprandial Glucose Levels and Infant Birth Weight: the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development – Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;164(1 Pt 1):103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(91)90637-7.Cosson E., Baz B., Gary F., Pharisien I., Nguyen M.T., Sandre-Banon D., Jaber Y. et al. Poor Reliability and Poor Adherence to Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Are Common in Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and May Be Associated with Poor Pregnancy Outcomes. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(9):1181–1186. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-0369.Cosson E., Baz B., Gary F., Pharisien I., Nguyen M.T., Sandre-Banon D., Jaber Y. et al. Poor Reliability and Poor Adherence to Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Are Common in Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and May Be Associated with Poor Pregnancy Outcomes. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(9):1181–1186. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-0369.Дедов И.И., Шестакова М.В., Майоров А.Ю. (ред.). Алгоритмы специализированной медицинской помощи больным сахарным диабетом. 9-й вып. Сахарный диабет. 2019;22(1S1):1–144. https://doi.org/10.14341/DM221S1. Dedov I.I., Shestakova M.V., Mayorov A.Yu. (eds.).Standards of Specialized Diabetes Care. Edited by 9th ed. Sakharnyy diabet = Diabetes Mellitus. 2019;22(1S1):1–144. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.14341/DM221S1.Дедов И.И., Шестакова М.В., Майоров А.Ю. (ред.). Алгоритмы специализированной медицинской помощи больным сахарным диабетом. 9-й вып. Сахарный диабет. 2019;22(1S1):1–144. https://doi.org/10.14341/DM221S1. Dedov I.I., Shestakova M.V., Mayorov A.Yu. (eds.).Standards of Specialized Diabetes Care. Edited by 9th ed. Sakharnyy diabet = Diabetes Mellitus. 2019;22(1S1):1–144. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.14341/DM221S1.Bailey T.S., Wallace J.F., Pardo S., Warchal-Windham M.E., Harrison B., Morin R., Christiansen M. Accuracy and User Performance Evaluation of a New, Wireless-Enabled Blood Glucose Monitoring System that Links to a Smart Mobile Device. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2017;11(4):736–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296816680829.Bailey T.S., Wallace J.F., Pardo S., Warchal-Windham M.E., Harrison B., Morin R., Christiansen M. Accuracy and User Performance Evaluation of a New, Wireless-Enabled Blood Glucose Monitoring System that Links to a Smart Mobile Device. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2017;11(4):736–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296816680829.Jendrike N., Baumstark A., Pleus S., Liebing C., Beer A., Flacke F. et al. Evaluation of Four Blood Glucose Monitoring Systems for Self-Testing with Built-in Insulin Dose Advisor Based on ISO 15197:2013: System Accuracy and Hematocrit Influence. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2018;20(4): 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2017.0391.Jendrike N., Baumstark A., Pleus S., Liebing C., Beer A., Flacke F. et al. Evaluation of Four Blood Glucose Monitoring Systems for Self-Testing with Built-in Insulin Dose Advisor Based on ISO 15197:2013: System Accuracy and Hematocrit Influence. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2018;20(4): 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2017.0391.Grady M., Warren G., Levy B.L., Katz L.B. Interactive Exposure with a Blood Glucose Monitor with a Novel Glucose Color Range Indicator Is Associated with Improved Glucose Range Interpretation and Awareness in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2015;9(4):841–848. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296815569882.Grady M., Warren G., Levy B.L., Katz L.B. Interactive Exposure with a Blood Glucose Monitor with a Novel Glucose Color Range Indicator Is Associated with Improved Glucose Range Interpretation and Awareness in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2015;9(4):841–848. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296815569882.Polonsky W.H., Fisher L., Schikman C.H., Hinnen D.A., Parkin C.G., Jelsovsky Z. et al. Structured Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Significantly Reduces A1C Levels in Poorly Controlled, Noninsulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes: Results from the Structured Testing Program Study. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(2):262–267. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1732.Polonsky W.H., Fisher L., Schikman C.H., Hinnen D.A., Parkin C.G., Jelsovsky Z. et al. Structured Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose Significantly Reduces A1C Levels in Poorly Controlled, Noninsulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetes: Results from the Structured Testing Program Study. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(2):262–267. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1732.Otto E.A., Tannan V. Evaluation of the Utility of a Glycemic Pattern Identification System. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2014;8(4):830–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296814532210.Otto E.A., Tannan V. Evaluation of the Utility of a Glycemic Pattern Identification System. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2014;8(4):830–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296814532210.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.